Figure 1: Antimicrobial Resistance & Phyto-Pharmacotherapeutics (Source: https://vegconomist.com/science/plant-based-nanoparticles-can-combat-antibiotic-resistance/) What is Antimicrobial Resistance? Antimicrobial resistance is the tendency of a microorganism to counteract the microbistatic or microbicidal effects of an antimicrobial drug. Antimicrobial resistance arises in a single microbe and is inherited in the newly reproduced microbes. The resistant microbe is able to gr

For over a century, the "Gold Standard" for diagnosing cutaneous melanoma has remained unchanged: the surgical punch or shave biopsy. However, the inherent subjectivity of visual assessment often leads to a "biopsy-heavy" clinical environment where the ratio of benign nevi to malignant melanoma can be as high as 25:1. As of 2026, the clinical tide is turning toward Non-Invasive Genomic Patch Biopsies—specifically the Pigmented Lesion Assay (PLA). This technology is shifting t

Fish live in environments where temperature can change dramatically—daily, seasonally, or even suddenly during heat waves. Unlike humans, fish can’t regulate their own body temperature. So how do they survive? The answer lies deep inside their cells, in tiny structures called mitochondria, often known as the “powerhouses” of the cell. Why mitochondria matter in fish hearts The heart is one of the most energy-demanding organs in any animal. In fish, this is especially importan

Finger-prick blood glucose testing using a glucometer provides a real-time “snapshot” of blood sugar levels, helping individuals with diabetes monitor and adjust their management in response to immediate changes (Diabetes Ireland). Introduction Diabetes mellitus is characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia due to impaired insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Accurate assessment of glycaemic status is central to preventing microvascular and macrovascular complications. Mo

By Benjamin Levinson, MD INTRODUCTION The term “Vampire” immediately conjures up an image of a person who fears the sun, sleeps in a coffin during the day, and hunts for victims at night to drink their blood. It is quite a story that many have believed over the centuries. It has been recognized that a possible origin for this legend is a disease called porphyria (1). The term ‘porphyria’ comes from the Greek work ‘purple’ as most people who have this d

Introduction Why does a slice of cake feel so satisfying even when we are hungry? Beyond taste, beyond calories, beyond sweetness, sugar activates a network in the brain structure known as the mesolimbic pathway. When we eat sugar, this system releases dopamine, reinforcing behaviours the brain interprets as rewarding. While this response is a part of normal human physiology, the frequency and intensity with which it is stimulated in modern dietary environments is historicall

What Triggers Addiction? Addiction manifests in many shapes and forms: drugs, alcohol, food, gambling, exercise, or even scrolling on social media. But what do they all have in common? Humans inherently seek pleasurable experiences, so it is natural to engage in behaviors that are enjoyable. Pleasure arises through the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that regulates the “reward center” of the brain. This reward system is evolutionarily valuable, as it reinforces behavi

Photo by Daniel Dan on Unsplash In many medical conditions, biological markers, also known as biomarkers, are commonly used to describe quantifiable biological indicators that can be measured reproducibly and objectively. It comprises a wide range of objective indicators, including molecules, genes, or physical traits that can objectively represent normal biological processes or responses to therapy. Defining a Biomarker For an indicator to be used as a biomarker, its perfor

In the 1970s, controlling an artificial limb with thoughts was pure science fiction. Shows like The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman inspired dreams of superhuman bionics, but even visionary scientists saw such technology as centuries away. Today, that fantasy is becoming clinical reality—transforming lives for people with limb loss. From Fiction to Function For decades, the main hurdle for intuitive prosthetics was the nervous system, not mechanics. The brain

By Kat Pachas, BSN, RN It’s 3 p.m., and you’re at your desk, fighting to stay awake as the afternoon slump hits. You ask yourself, “ Why am I always so tired ?” You’re not alone in this. Many people deal with ongoing fatigue and low energy. One possible reason is mitochondrial dysfunction (Filler et al., 2014). Mitochondria make most of the energy your body needs, so if they aren’t working well, your cells can’t produce enough energy, even if you get plenty of sleep (NCBI Bo

The blood pressure monitors at your GP surgery. The insulin pen used at home. The app tracking your heart rhythm. We trust these medical devices without a second thought, but few of us know what it actually takes for one to be approved for use. Step 1: The Idea and Early Design Medical devices play a fundamental role in modern healthcare, supporting the diagnosis, prevention, monitoring, and treatment of disease, as recognised by the European Commission [1]. Development typic

The Surprising Plant Origins of Common Medicines: Roots, Branches, and Pain Relief

Natural Killer cells are part of the body’s innate immune system. Think of them as fast-acting armed guards—they’re the body’s first responders to threat. Scientists are working on turning these cells into something more akin to trained assassins. Numerous and diverse studies are being conducted around the world to use them against cancer. (1, 11) NK cells got their name in 1975 when Swedish researchers discovered them in mice. What made them unique was their ability to quick

The body’s timekeeping system Our bodies have an internal timekeeping system referred to as the circadian clock . It runs on roughly a 24‑hour cycle and helps coordinate almost everything we do: when we feel sleepy or alert, how we process food, how our hormones rise and fall, and even when our cells repair damage. At the centre of this system is a small region in the brain that responds to light and acts as a master clock. But over the past decade (or more) scientists discov

In modern healthcare, cleanliness is more than a best practice it is a norm. From hand hygiene campaigns to hospital-wide protocols for sterilization, infection control has saved many lives. Yet as medicine continues to push toward higher levels of sterility, but there is a quieter concern: could over-sanitization itself be creating new risks for patients? This question challenges long held assumptions about how cleanliness, immunity, and microbial exposure affect healthcare

Introduction In the vast landscape of autoimmune diseases, a significant proportion are driven by pathogenic Immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies. These antibodies attack the body's own tissues, leading to debilitating conditions such as generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP), and hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). Traditional treatments, such as broad immunosuppression or plasma exchange, are often indis

Modern Medicine and Solid Organ Transplant For people with failing organs such as hearts, kidneys, livers, or lungs, solid organ transplantation can represent the difference between life and death. What was once seen as experimental medicine is now one of the most powerful tools in modern healthcare. According to a major scientific journal review, an astounding 41,354 solid organ transplants were performed in the United States alone in 2021, showing how widely this life-savi

The urea cycle detoxifies ammonia by converting it to urea, with arginase-1 catalyzing the final step: hydrolysis of arginine to urea and ornithine. Argininemia (arginase-1 deficiency) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by pathogenic variants in ARG1 that markedly reduce enzyme activity. Loss of arginase function limits nitrogen excretion, leading to progressive hyperargininemia, accumulation of neurotoxic guanidino compounds, and variable hyperammonemia. Unlike pr

In clinical medicine, it’s easy to assume that if two patients receive the same diagnosis and the same prescription, their outcomes should look similar. In reality, that’s rarely the case. Some patients respond immediately to treatment, while others see little benefit or experience unexpected side effects. While genetics and lifestyle are often cited as explanations, another factor is gaining attention for its quiet but also very significant role: the gut microbiome. The gut

By Stephen Beesley What is Cell and Gene Therapy? Cell and gene therapy (CGT) are advanced medical approaches that can treat a variety of diseases that derive from an underlying genetic dysfunction (could be either DNA or RNA). Gene therapy delivers genetic material (DNA or RNA) into a patient’s cells to correct or compensate for faulty genes, often using viral vectors such as adeno-associated virus (AAV) and lipid nanoparticles (LNP). This kind of therapy aims for a one-and