Pharmacology is the auxiliary science of medicine that has helped us fight disease, pain and all kind of problems, but it has always encountered a problem: every person is quite unique from a genetic point of view, and that usually don’t represent a problem at all, most of the truly important differences are well known by physicians and are extremely rare from a statistical point of view; but in the last years we have got to know something we were previously ignoring complete

What is ADHD? Before jumping into how ADHD medications actually work within the body, it is important to define what it is. ADHD is the acronym for Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is a very common neurodevelopment disorder found in both children and adults where individuals may have trouble controlling impulsive behaviors, may be unable to pay attention, and may poorly follow instructions (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). For many, the effects of ADHD can be effectively

We trust our ears to tell us the truth. Sometimes, it’s our eyes that decide what we think we’ve heard. Photo by Ümit Yıldırım  on Unsplash Imagine you’re standing across the road from a friend. Cars are passing, engines are loud, and the noise swallows most of what she’s saying. You see her mouth open wide, her face tense, her body leaning forward. Even before you fully hear her voice, your brain already assumes she’s shouting. In fact, you almost hear  it, just from the way

Sarah Bersey BSc (Hons) Pg Dip When I was a young child, you were either a reader or you weren’t.  Most of us did read off and on, as TV only had a few channels and there wasn’t any social media or an online world to lose ourselves in. A few weeks into a long school holiday had us reaching for books out of sheer boredom. These days I still know a lot of people that read for pleasure and reap the benefits.  However, modern life can rob us of the time to read if we let it, and

Overview Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) is a rare neurological condition in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nerves, the network that carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body. This can cause weakness, numbness, and in severe cases, paralysis and difficulty breathing. Most people recover, but because symptoms can escalate quickly, early recognition and medical care are crucial. (1,2) What exactly is GBS? In GBS, the body’s defence sys

I have worked at a local nursing home as a dietary aide since last summer, and have recently started working as a certified nursing assistant (CNA) as well. These two jobs have taught me numerous things, specifically how to care for people experiencing cognitive decline. It can be difficult to see loved ones face the challenges of memory loss, and you might feel like there is nothing that you can do to help. But there are many strategies for caring for these loved ones. In th

Written by Olivia Orr, BSN, RN Have you ever felt overwhelmed and heard someone say, “Just relax”? It can leave you questioning whether you are overreacting or imagining the problem. You are not. Stress is a real, physiological response rooted in the nervous system. Stress is often described as an emotional response, but it produces physical changes throughout the body. A stress response is the body’s way of telling you something is wrong, similar to an immune response. An im

Fatal Familial Insomnia is a rare, fatal, autosomal dominant neurodegenerative prion disease. FFI is caused by mutation in PRNP gene, causing misfolded proteins (prions) in the brain, particularly in thalamus, where sleep-wake cycle is controlled.

Introduction When a child lives with a chronic physical illness, stress becomes part of their everyday life. The influx of doctor visits, medications, ongoing symptoms, and feelings of exclusion from peers can contribute to declines in mental health. Reports of declining mental health among children are not new, but the reasons behind this decline remain unclear. A recent Canadian study offers an important suggestion: long-term stress leaves a biological fingerprint, and that

Photo by Brandon Cormier  on Unsplash We spend, on average, around eight hours a day asleep, an essential biological process that plays a fundamental role in maintaining physical and cognitive health. Even a single night of inadequate sleep can noticeably impair daily functioning, leading to reduced concentration, lethargy, and mood changes. When sleep disturbances persist over time, however, their effects extend far beyond transient fatigue, contributing to long-term impairm

An open hand framed by a sunset "I've been tryin' to get down To the heart of the matter But my will gets weak And my thoughts seem to scatter But I think it's about Forgiveness, forgiveness…” Don Henley, The Heart of the Matter, 1989 As human beings, we are familiar with the concept of needing to forgive those who have wronged us. However, people are often uncertain about how to accomplish forgiveness (7) or understand its importance in their own health and wellbeing (9). Th

Introduction HIV affects over 40 million people worldwide, with up to 77% of patients accessing antiretroviral therapy. Despite efforts to control the progression of the disease with antiretroviral therapy, approximately 30-50% of people living with HIV may develop HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder, or HAND. These patients present with difficulties in executive function, memory, attention, verbal fluency, and concentration.  Pathogenesis HIV enters the central nervous sy

Introduction Stress is often thought of as something that happens "in your head"; worry that keeps you up throughout the night, feeling emotionally overwhelmed after a long workday, or a racing mind before a big presentation. But stress rarely stays confined to thoughts alone. Fatigue, muscle tension, stomach discomfort, and even changes in movement or coordination lag close behind. This is not a coincidence. These physical symptoms reflect the brain’s constant communication

Introduction Multiple Sclerosis (MS) has long been understood as a disease of two distinct phases: an inflammatory phase characterized by acute relapses (driven largely by peripheral immune cells attacking the CNS), and a neurodegenerative phase characterized by slow, steady disability accrual independent of relapses. While current Disease-Modifying Therapies (DMTs) are highly effective at suppressing relapses, they have largely failed to stop the insidious progression of dis

Introduction Throughout the day, you encounter minor and major inconveniences. There’s no gas in the car, kids are crying and screaming, or you wake up late because you forgot to set your alarm. These occurrences can build up and contribute to a worldwide phenomenon known as stress. While stress is something everyone experiences, it does not affect everyone in the same way. Cultural background, lived experiences, and social conditions all influence how stress shows up in the

Cerebral Venous Thrombosis is the leading cause of strokes in younger populations, despite being a relatively rare type of stroke. Symptoms can vary massively from patient to patient, but often most patients present with a severe headache.

Did you know that 7.2 million Americans are living with Alzheimer’s in 2025 and this number is expected to triple by 2050? What is Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)?   Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia. It is a progressive neurological brain disease characterized by accumulation of beta amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles that causes irreversible brain damage. The part of the brain first affected by this disease is associated with learning and memory. Hence the early

Introduction In this article, I will discuss the differences between normal cognitive decline associated with aging and abnormal decline. Some people think that dementia is a normal part of the aging process, but this is not true. Aging brings predictable changes in cognitive function, but not all decline is normal. Some patterns reflect healthy aging, while others signal underlying disease. There are three broad groups of cognitive decline: age-associated memory impairment,

By Anne Denk, RN, BSN Migraines affect 37 million Americans, including men, women, and children. Migraines occur due to a variety of factors. While there are multiple pharmacological treatment options, studies have shown that several alternative treatments are beneficial. Massage therapy is one of these alternative treatment options that can reduce the symptoms of migraines. Origins and Impacts of Migraines Migraine headaches occur for many reasons. Contributing factors inclu

Since we were children, we were taught at school that taste is one of our most important sense. Indeed, since we are born, this represents a way to be exposed to the world and learn to discriminate several tastes, which helps us to recognize also specific types of food or feelings when eating them. Of course, human nature evolved progressively to develop sensitive taste skills, at the beginning as a matter of survival. Although now our needs are different, these important gen