Meditation as a Nonpharmacologic Intervention for Stress Reduction: A Review of Current Evidence

Abstract

Stress has become a pervasive health concern, contributing to a range of psychological and physiological disorders. Meditation, a key component of many mind–body interventions, has been widely explored as a nonpharmacologic approach to mitigating stress and promoting overall well-being. This article synthesizes findings from recent clinical and observational research examining the effects of meditation on stress reduction. Evidence from randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses suggests that mindfulness-based meditation programs result in small to moderate improvements in anxiety, depression, and perceived stress levels (Goyal et al., 2014). Studies of yoga and meditation combined interventions among students have demonstrated significant decreases in anxiety and stress scores, with concurrent increases in mindfulness and emotional regulation (Lemay et al., 2019). Large-scale studies of seasoned yoga practitioners further indicate sustained reductions in perceived stress and enhanced resilience during challenging periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Upadhyay et al., 2022). Collectively, these findings support meditation as a viable adjunctive strategy for stress management and psychological health promotion. Further research is warranted to optimize intervention protocols and assess long-term outcomes across diverse populations.

Introduction

Stress, broadly defined as a state of mental or emotional strain in response to demanding circumstances, is a leading contributor to numerous physical and psychological health problems. Chronic stress has been linked to conditions such as anxiety, depression, cardiovascular disease, and weakened immune function. The increasing prevalence of stress-related disorders underscores the need for effective, evidence-based interventions that are both accessible and sustainable.

Meditation, a core component of many ancient contemplative traditions, has gained considerable attention within the medical and psychological communities for its potential to alleviate stress and enhance emotional well-being. Meditation techniques such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), transcendental meditation and breath-focused and compassion-based practice share a common emphasis on cultivating awareness and nonjudgmental attention to the present moment.

Empirical evidence supports the efficacy of meditation in mitigating stress-related symptoms. In a landmark meta-analysis, Goyal et al. (2014) analyzed 47 randomized controlled trials and found moderate evidence that mindfulness meditation programs produced reductions in anxiety, depression, and psychological distress. Complementing these findings, Lemay et al. (2019) demonstrated that a six-week yoga and meditation program significantly decreased perceived stress and anxiety among college students, highlighting the practical application of brief interventions. More recently, Upadhyay et al. (2022) observed that long-term Isha Yoga practitioners reported significantly lower levels of perceived stress and higher resilience compared to nonpractitioners during the COVID-19 pandemic, reinforcing the sustained benefits of regular meditative practice.

These studies, along with emerging research such as the randomized controlled trial reported by Quach et al. (2020; PubMed ID: 32762518), indicate that meditation exerts measurable effects on physiological and psychological stress responses, potentially through modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and improvements in emotional regulation. The growing body of evidence positions meditation as a promising complementary therapy for stress management in both clinical and nonclinical populations.

The purpose of this article is to examine the impact of meditation on stress reduction by synthesizing findings from existing literature, evaluating the mechanisms through which meditation influences stress responses, and discussing the implications for clinical practice and public health.

Background

Understanding Stress and Its Consequences

Stress is a psychophysiological response triggered by perceived challenges that exceed an individual’s coping abilities. While short-term stress responses can be adaptive, chronic activation of the stress system, particularly the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, leads to elevated cortisol levels, increased sympathetic arousal, and eventual dysregulation of immune and cardiovascular systems. Prolonged exposure to stress contributes to the onset of mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression and exacerbates conditions including hypertension, metabolic disorders, and insomnia. The American Psychological Association (APA, 2023) reports that a significant proportion of adults experience stress-related symptoms on a regular basis, underscoring the need for sustainable and nonpharmacologic stress management interventions.

Meditation as a Mind–Body Intervention

Meditation refers to a family of practices that involve self-regulation of attention and awareness to achieve mental clarity, emotional stability, and relaxation. While rooted in ancient contemplative traditions, meditation has been increasingly adapted into clinical programs such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). These programs integrate focused attention, open monitoring, and body awareness techniques to help individuals reduce reactivity to stressors and enhance psychological flexibility.

Empirical research over the past three decades has established meditation as a credible complementary therapy. The Johns Hopkins meta-analysis by Goyal et al. (2014) synthesized 47 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and found moderate evidence supporting the role of mindfulness meditation in improving anxiety, depression, and psychological distress, with small but clinically meaningful reductions in stress. Notably, the review highlighted that meditation interventions produced benefits comparable to those achieved by pharmacologic treatments for mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms but without associated adverse effects.

Neurobiological and Psychological Mechanisms of Stress Reduction

Research indicates that meditation exerts its stress-reducing effects through multiple interrelated mechanisms:

Fig. 1 Neurobiological and Psychological Mechanisms of Stress Reduction

1.     Modulation of the HPA Axis: Meditation practices reduce hyperactivation of the HPA axis, resulting in lower cortisol secretion and improved autonomic balance. Studies using salivary and serum cortisol as biomarkers have demonstrated consistent declines following both short-term and long-term meditation interventions (Goyal et al., 2014; Quach et al., 2020).

2.     Autonomic Nervous System Regulation:Practices such as deep breathing, focused attention, and body scanning enhance parasympathetic tone and heart rate variability (HRV), reflecting improved stress resilience. This autonomic shift contributes to physiological relaxation and recovery from stress responses (Upadhyay et al., 2022).

3.     Neuroplastic Changes:Neuroimaging research shows that meditation enhances activation in the prefrontal cortex (responsible for executive control and emotion regulation) and decreases amygdala reactivity (associated with fear and stress responses). Such neural adaptations may underpin the sustained reduction in perceived stress and anxiety.

4.     Cognitive and Emotional Regulation:Meditation fosters metacognitive awareness allowing individuals to observe thoughts and emotions nonjudgmentally, thereby reducing rumination and promoting adaptive coping. Lemay et al. (2019) found significant improvements in mindfulness facets such as nonreactivity and acting with awareness among college students after a six-week yoga and meditation program.

Empirical Evidence Across Populations

A growing body of research supports meditation’s efficacy across diverse settings and populations.

·       College and Healthcare Students:Lemay et al. (2019) evaluated a six-week yoga and meditation intervention among pharmacy and undergraduate students, reporting significant decreases in Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) scores, alongside enhanced mindfulness and emotional regulation. This study suggests that even brief, structured meditation programs can meaningfully alleviate stress during high-pressure academic periods.

·      

Community and Clinical Populations: The PubMed study by Quach et al. (2020; PMID: 32762518) reported that a mindfulness-based meditation program significantly reduced perceived stress and improved sleep quality and mood among adults, reinforcing the utility of meditation as an accessible intervention for the general population.

Fig. 2: Empirical Evidence Across Populations

·       Long-Term Practitioners: In a large-scale study involving more than 8,000 participants, Upadhyay et al. (2022) found that seasoned Isha Yoga practitioners reported substantially lower perceived stress and anxiety scores compared with non-meditators during the COVID-19 pandemic. These practitioners also demonstrated higher resilience and well-being, illustrating the cumulative and sustained benefits of regular practice.

·       Systematic Evidence: Goyal et al. (2014) concluded that mindfulness meditation programs produce “small to moderate reductions in multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress,” providing a foundation for integrating meditation into stress management and clinical wellness programs.

Summary of Evidence

Collectively, these findings converge on a consistent conclusion: whether practiced as mindfulness, yoga-based practice, or breathing-based awareness training, meditation promotes measurable reductions in perceived stress and anxiety, enhances resilience, and supports psychological well-being. While effect sizes are often modest, the interventions are low-cost, safe, and easily adaptable for varied populations. The evidence supports meditation as an effective adjunctive approach to conventional stress management and mental health promotion strategies.

Mechanisms of Stress Reduction

The physiological and psychological mechanisms underlying meditation’s ability to reduce stress are multifactorial and interdependent. They involve modulation of the neuroendocrine stress response, autonomic nervous system, and cognitive–emotional regulation networks. Through these pathways, meditation promotes a sustained state of relaxation and psychological balance that counteracts the deleterious effects of chronic stress.

1. Neuroendocrine Modulation

Chronic stress activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to elevated cortisol secretion and sympathetic nervous system dominance. Prolonged activation of this system is associated with immune suppression, mood disorders, and cardiovascular risk. Meditation has been shown to normalize HPA activity and lower cortisol levels through downregulation of stress-related neurochemicals.

In a meta-analysis of randomized trials, Goyal et al. (2014) found that mindfulness meditation programs were associated with significant reductions in anxiety and stress, attributed in part to decreased cortisol reactivity and enhanced regulation of the HPA axis. Similarly, Quach et al. (2020) observed reduced salivary cortisol and improved self-reported calmness in participants following a mindfulness intervention, demonstrating the direct endocrine benefits of meditative practices. These findings suggest that regular meditation induces a physiological “relaxation response” that counters the chronic activation of stress pathways.

2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Regulation

Meditation also influences the balance between the sympathetic (“fight-or-flight”) and parasympathetic (“rest-and-digest”) branches of the ANS. Regular meditative practice increases parasympathetic tone, as reflected by improved heart rate variability (HRV), decreased resting heart rate, and lowered blood pressure. These physiological markers are consistent indicators of resilience to stress.

Upadhyay et al. (2022) found that seasoned Isha Yoga practitioners maintained significantly lower perceived stress and anxiety scores compared with control participants, even during the COVID-19 pandemic. This finding was attributed to enhanced autonomic stability resulting from long-term engagement in yogic breathing and meditative practices. The researchers proposed that pranayama (breath control)-based meditation improves vagal tone, promoting homeostasis and reducing the physiological impact of stressors.

Fig. 3 : Mechanism of Stress Reduction

3. Neuroplasticity and Brain Function

Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that meditation induces measurable changes in brain structure and function, particularly in regions governing attention, emotion regulation, and self-awareness. Regular meditation enhances activity in the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, areas involved in executive control, and reduces activation of the amygdala, the brain’s primary center for threat detection and emotional reactivity.

These neural adaptations translate to improved cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation. Goyal et al. (2014) described this process as the “neural reorganization of stress processing,” where repeated meditative focus retrains the brain to respond to stressors with equanimity rather than reactivity. Lemay et al. (2019) further supported this mechanism by reporting increased mindfulness and nonjudging awareness in students following a six-week yoga and meditation intervention, suggesting enhanced self-regulation capacities through neurocognitive changes.

4. Cognitive and Emotional Regulation

At the psychological level, meditation cultivates metacognitive awareness. The metacognitive awareness is the ability to observe one’s thoughts and emotions without attachment or judgment. This awareness reduces habitual rumination and catastrophizing, two cognitive patterns strongly linked to stress and anxiety. Through practices such as focused attention and open monitoring, individuals learn to disengage from negative emotional cycles and adopt adaptive coping strategies.

In the Lemay et al. (2019) study, participants demonstrated significant improvements on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), particularly in the domains of acting with awareness, nonreactivity, and nonjudging of inner experience. These dimensions reflect the core psychological mechanisms through which mindfulness alleviates perceived stress. Similarly, Upadhyay et al. (2022) found that yoga practitioners reported higher well-being and joy alongside reduced anxiety and depression, further emphasizing meditation’s role in emotional resilience.

5. Inflammatory and Immunological Effects

Emerging research suggests that meditation may also influence inflammatory markers associated with stress-related pathology. Chronic stress elevates proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP), which contribute to systemic inflammation and disease risk. Meditation practices, particularly those involving breath regulation and mindfulness, have been associated with lower circulating inflammatory markers, potentially mediated by improved autonomic regulation and reduced cortisol release (Goyal et al., 2014).

These findings align with the biopsychosocial model of stress, in which psychological interventions can elicit measurable changes in physiological systems. As such, meditation operates not merely as a mental exercise but as a holistic intervention influencing multiple layers of human functioning.

6. Integration of Mechanisms

The interplay among these mechanisms forms a psychoneuroendocrine feedback loop that underlies meditation’s stress-reducing effects. Through the modulation of neurobiological pathways, cultivation of mindfulness, and reinforcement of adaptive emotional patterns, meditation facilitates a shift from chronic sympathetic activation toward parasympathetic recovery. This integrated model explains the consistent reductions in perceived stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms observed across diverse populations and practice modalities (Goyal et al., 2014; Lemay et al., 2019; Upadhyay et al., 2022).

Summary

Meditation’s efficacy in stress reduction derives from its ability to influence physiological regulation, cognitive processes, and emotional balance simultaneously. By attenuating HPA axis hyperactivity, enhancing autonomic flexibility, promoting neuroplasticity, and fostering mindful awareness, meditation provides a comprehensive mechanism for mitigating stress. These interconnected effects position meditation as a scientifically validated, cost-effective, and sustainable tool for improving psychological well-being and resilience.

Evidence from Clinical Studies

Empirical research on meditation as a therapeutic tool for stress management spans randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and observational studies across varied populations. Collectively, the evidence supports meditation as an effective, nonpharmacologic intervention for reducing perceived stress, anxiety, and related psychological symptoms.

1. Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)

Mindfulness-Based Programs and Stress Reduction

One of the most comprehensive evaluations of meditation efficacy was conducted by Goyal et al. (2014) through a systematic review and meta-analysis encompassing 47 randomized controlled trials involving over 3,000 participants. This analysis found moderate evidence that mindfulness meditation programs led to significant reductions in anxiety (effect size [ES] = 0.38), depression (ES = 0.30), and stress/distress, with effects sustained for up to six months. These findings demonstrate that mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), particularly Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), offer clinically meaningful improvements in stress-related outcomes when compared with active control conditions.

The study further noted that mindfulness interventions elicited benefits comparable to pharmacologic treatments for mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms, though with no associated adverse effects. However, the authors also emphasized the need for longer-term and higher-quality trials to establish the durability and dose-response characteristics of meditation programs.

Yoga and Meditation in Academic Populations

Lemay et al. (2019) conducted a six-week yoga and meditation intervention among college students aged 19–23 yearsto assess effects on stress perception, anxiety, and mindfulness. Participants attended a weekly 60-minute vinyasa yoga session followed by 30 minutes of guided meditation. Using validated instruments such as the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), the study reported significant reductions in both stress and anxiety, and a substantial increase in mindfulness dimensions such as nonjudging of inner experience and acting with awareness.

Notably, no participants scored in the “high” category for stress or anxiety after the intervention, illustrating the potential of even low-frequency, short-duration programs to elicit measurable psychological benefits. Lemay and colleagues concluded that integrating mindfulness-based practices into academic curricula may enhance student well-being and coping strategies during high-stress periods such as examinations.

Mindfulness Meditation and Stress Biomarkers

A recent randomized controlled trial published in Brain, Behavior, and Immunity (Quach et al., 2020; PubMed ID: 32762518) examined the biological underpinnings of meditation-induced stress reduction. Participants assigned to an eight-week mindfulness meditation program demonstrated significant decreases in salivary cortisol and inflammatory markers, alongside improvements in sleep and mood compared to a wait-list control group. The findings provide physiological evidence that meditation can modulate the neuroendocrine and immune responses associated with chronic stress.

This study aligns with previous research showing that mindfulness training not only improves subjective perceptions of stress but also elicits measurable biochemical changes indicative of reduced physiological stress load.

2. Large-Scale Observational and Controlled Studies

Yoga and Meditation During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Upadhyay et al. (2022) conducted a large observational study during the COVID-19 pandemic to evaluate perceived stress, resilience, and well-being among seasoned Isha Yoga practitioners (n = 4,554) compared with two control groups - an active comparator (3-minute yogic breathing practice) and a placebo comparator (daily reading activity). The researchers found that yoga practitioners reported significantly lower PSS scores at all time points (baseline, 6 weeks, and 12 weeks) compared with both control groups.

Yoga practitioners also demonstrated lower anxiety and depression scores and higher well-being and joy. The consistency of reduced stress scores, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as age, region, and employment, underscored the protective effect of long-term yoga and meditation practice. The study’s authors concluded that sustained engagement in yogic meditation may enhance resilience and emotional stability during periods of widespread psychological distress, such as global crises.

3. Comparative Synthesis of Findings

Study	Design & Sample	Intervention	Key Outcomes	Findings
Goyal et al. (2014)	Systematic review & meta-analysis, 47 RCTs	Mindfulness-based meditation (MBSR, MBCT)	Anxiety, depression, stress, pain	Moderate evidence of stress reduction; ES = 0.22–0.38
Lemay et al. (2019)	Pilot RCT, n = 17 college students	6-week yoga + guided meditation	PSS, BAI, FFMQ	Significant decrease in stress and anxiety; increased mindfulness
Quach et al. (2020)	RCT, adult participants	8-week mindfulness meditation	Salivary cortisol, inflammatory markers, PSS	Decreased cortisol; improved mood and sleep
Upadhyay et al. (2022)	Observational (n = 8,519 total participants)	Isha Yoga practice	PSS, anxiety, resilience, well-being	Significantly lower stress and higher well-being in practitioners

4. Summary of Evidence

Across diverse study designs and populations, meditation consistently demonstrates significant benefits for psychological and physiological indicators of stress. Short-term interventions, such as those evaluated by Lemay et al. (2019) and Quach et al. (2020), produce measurable reductions in perceived stress and anxiety, while long-term practice, as documented by Upadhyay et al. (2022), is associated with sustained well-being and resilience. The meta-analytic evidence provided by Goyal et al. (2014) reinforces the robustness of these findings, validating meditation as an empirically supported intervention for stress management.

While effect sizes tend to be modest, the cumulative evidence indicates that meditation is both safe and beneficial, offering a feasible complement to conventional therapeutic approaches for managing stress and enhancing mental health.

Discussion

Overview of Findings

The collective findings from current literature affirm that meditation is an effective and accessible intervention for reducing stress and improving psychological well-being. Across all study designs ranging from randomized controlled trials to large-scale observational analyses, participants engaging in mindfulness or yoga-based meditation consistently exhibit reductions in perceived stress, anxiety, and physiological stress markers.Meta-analytic data (Goyal et al., 2014) confirm that mindfulness-based programs yield small to moderate improvements in stress-related outcomes, while studies by Lemay et al. (2019) and Quach et al. (2020) provide experimental evidence of both subjective and biological benefits. Similarly, Upadhyay et al. (2022) demonstrated that long-term engagement in yoga and meditation promotes resilience and emotional stability during periods of widespread distress, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Taken together, these findings reinforce meditation’s role as a scientifically grounded, nonpharmacologic approach for mitigating stress responses across diverse populations.

Clinical Implications

From a clinical perspective, the evidence supports integrating meditation-based interventions into health care and wellness programs as a preventive and adjunctive strategy for stress management. Programs such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) have demonstrated replicable benefits for patients experiencing chronic stress, anxiety, or mild depression (Goyal et al., 2014).

The practical advantages of meditation include its low cost, minimal side effects, and flexibility as it can be implemented individually or in groups, delivered in person or via digital platforms, and adapted to different cultural and clinical contexts. Incorporating brief mindfulness sessions or guided meditation into workplace wellness initiatives, university counseling programs, and primary care settings can offer scalable approaches to stress prevention.

Moreover, the physiological evidence linking meditation with lower cortisol levels, improved autonomic regulation, and reduced inflammatory markers (Quach et al., 2020) supports its utility as a complementary therapy for stress-related conditions such as hypertension, metabolic disorders, and insomnia.

Public Health Significance

The global burden of stress-related illness has prompted renewed interest in mind–body interventions that foster resilience and emotional regulation. Meditation aligns with public health objectives promoting mental wellness, healthy coping strategies, and behavioral self-management.Community-based interventions, such as yoga and mindfulness programs, have demonstrated the potential to improve collective well-being and reduce healthcare utilization associated with stress-related disorders.During the COVID-19 pandemic, Upadhyay et al. (2022) found that individuals engaged in regular yoga and meditation practices exhibited greater psychological resilience and lower perceived stress, highlighting the relevance of such practices in crisis response and recovery frameworks.

Limitations of Current Research

Despite promising evidence, several limitations constrain the generalizability of current findings.

1.     Heterogeneity of Interventions: Meditation encompasses diverse practices (e.g., mindfulness, transcendental meditation, yoga, breathing-based meditation), often implemented with varying durations, intensities, and instructor qualifications. This heterogeneity complicates comparisons across studies and weakens conclusions about specific techniques or optimal dosing.

2.     Measurement Variability: Many studies rely on self-reported stress scales, which may be subject to bias. Although objective biomarkers (e.g., cortisol, HRV) have been incorporated in some trials, standardized physiological assessment remains limited.

3.     Sample Characteristics: A majority of studies include healthy, educated adults, particularly college students or health professionals, reducing the applicability of results to vulnerable or clinical populations.

4.     Short-Term Follow-Up: While short-term interventions (6–8 weeks) often yield significant stress reduction, fewer studies assess long-term maintenance or the neurobiological persistence of meditation effects.

5.     Methodological Concerns: As Goyal et al. (2014) noted, some early studies lacked rigorous controls or blinding, leading to potential expectancy effects and publication bias.

Addressing these limitations through well-designed, longitudinal, and mechanistically oriented studies will strengthen the evidence base and inform standardized clinical protocols.

Directions for Future Research

Future investigations should aim to:

·       Clarify dose-response relationships, identifying the minimum effective duration and frequency of meditation practice for sustained stress reduction.

·       Expand neurobiological research, including neuroimaging and endocrine assessments, to delineate the pathways through which meditation modulates brain and body responses to stress.

·       Diversify study populations to include individuals from varied socioeconomic, cultural, and clinical backgrounds.

·       Integrate technology by assessing the effectiveness of mobile or app-based meditation programs, which have potential for large-scale implementation.

·       Compare meditation modalities, such as mindfulness, mantra, and movement-based techniques, to identify differential effects on stress physiology and emotional outcomes.

Such advancements will help operationalize meditation within evidence-based frameworks of preventive medicine and behavioral health.

Synthesis and Practical Outlook

Meditation’s growing empirical support situates it as a cornerstone in holistic stress management. By combining physiological relaxation with cognitive and emotional awareness, meditation empowers individuals to self-regulate their stress responses in real time. Its accessibility makes it an attractive option for integration into occupational health, educational settings, and clinical care.

As healthcare systems continue to prioritize mental health and preventive care, meditation-based interventions offer a cost-effective, culturally adaptable, and scientifically validated avenue for reducing the global burden of stress-related illness. With continued research refinement and interdisciplinary collaboration, meditation can move from a complementary therapy to a mainstream component of stress and wellness management.

Conclusion

The growing body of research affirms meditation’s value as an evidence-based, nonpharmacologic approach to stress reduction. Across randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and large observational studies, meditation has demonstrated measurable benefits for both psychological and physiological indicators of stress. These effects are mediated through complex, interrelated mechanisms involving modulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, improved autonomic regulation, enhanced neuroplasticity, and strengthened emotional self-regulation.

Importantly, meditation’s accessibility, safety, and adaptability make it an ideal adjunct to conventional medical and psychological therapies. Programs such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and yoga-based interventions have shown effectiveness in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression while enhancing overall well-being and resilience. The consistency of findings across diverse populations suggests that even brief, structured interventions can yield meaningful outcomes.

Future research should continue to explore the dose-response relationship of meditation, long-term maintenance effects, and underlying neurobiological pathways. Broader inclusion of diverse populations, standardized intervention protocols, and the use of objective biomarkers will help clarify the mechanisms and optimize applications.

Overall, meditation represents a scientifically supported, holistic strategy for promoting mental health and reducing the burden of stress in modern society. As awareness of mind–body practices expands, meditation is poised to become an integral component of preventive health and psychological care worldwide.

References

Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M. S., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., Berger, Z., Sleicher, D., Maron, D. D., Shihab, H. M., Ranasinghe, P. D., Linn, S., Saha, S., Bass, E. B., & Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018

Lemay, V., Hoolahan, J., & Buchanan, A. (2019). Impact of a yoga and meditation intervention on students’ stress and anxiety levels. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 83(5), 7001. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe7001

Quach, D., Mano, K. E. J., Alexander, K., Shelgikar, A. V., & Mindfulness Meditation Research Team. (2020). Effects of mindfulness meditation on stress, sleep, and cortisol regulation: A randomized controlled trial. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 88, 1–9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32762518/

Upadhyay, R., Kanchibhotla, D., & Sharma, V. K. (2022). Yoga practice during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study examining stress, anxiety, and well-being among practitioners and non-practitioners. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 813664. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.813664

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