Nature's Medicine Cabinet Part 3

Cardiovascular, Oncology, and Multipurpose Medications

A series of articles exploring holistic medicine and the botanical origins of the medicines we use every day

by B. Kristine Burneko, MSN, APRN, PMHNP-BC, APHN-BC

Fig. 1: Herbal Apothecary Tools. From Wix [photograph] (educational use.)

Cardiovascular Health

Statins, similar to lithium and the GLP-1 agonists, have non-plant origins that emerge from the earth nonetheless – as filamentous fungi of several species, most notably Aspergillus terreus - also known as “soil mold”. In 1972, Dr. Akira Enzo, after tirelessly testing thousands of strains of fungi in the lab, came upon a chemical called monacolin-K that showed promise in lowering serum cholesterol. Quickly patented and sold by the Merck pharmaceutical company, we know Dr. Enzo’s discovery today as lovastatin. (Cheshire and Akbar, 2024).

Fig. 12: Aspergillus filaments. Image:Wikimedia Commons/Medmyco at English Wikipedia. Aspergillus terreus. (CC BY 4.0)

Digoxin, derived from the stalks of foxglove, has a long history in the treatment of heart failure and arrhythmias. Despite its great floral beauty (Digitalis lanata is still a favorite accent flower for domestic gardeners with its alert stalks ringed by gorgeous purple trumpet-flowers), it was once used as a dangerous and frequently fatal folk remedy used in Europe to treat “dropsy.” Today, “dropsy” is referred to as congestive heart failure related edema, and in the late 18^thcentury it was refined into a life-saving glycoside capable of saving lives when precisely dosed and carefully regulated (Edwards, 2012.)

Fig. 13: Gorgeous, dangerous foxglove. From Wix [photograph, "purple foxglove flowers"] (educational use.)

Warfarin’s story begins in 1933, when Wisconsin farmer Ed Carlson noticed his cows suffering and dying from unexplained hemorrhaging after they dined on sweet clover hay (Melilotus species) that was slightly moldy. Farmer Carlson drove to the city of Madison, Wisconsin for help and encountered Dr. Karl Link, setting in motion a chain of events that led to the discovery of the culprit compound, dicoumarol (Walters, 2022.)  The refinement of dicoumarol by chemists at the university eventually led to the synthesis of warfarin, which was first marketed as a rodenticide before becoming one of the most widely used anticoagulants in human medicine.

Fig. 14: Sweet clover. Image: Wikimedia Commons/Nichole Ouelette. Melilotus alba 019. (CC BY 4.0)

Cancer Treatments

There are at least two frequently used chemotherapy drugs that trace their origin to the earth’s natural plant pharmacopeia. The Pacific yew tree, (Taxus brevifolia), grows naturally in the waterlogged soil of the American Pacific Northwest region. It is a relatively short evergreen tree bearing short, dark green needles, delicate and hollow little red berries, and equally small cones. The bark of this yew tree gives us paclitaxel, which is used to treat lung, ovarian, and breast cancers. Silybum marianum is also recognizable as the common milk thistle with an explosive spike husk and violet fur cap. The thistle yields silymarin (marketed today as the drug Legalon®), which is occasionally used in oncology to counteract chemotherapy-related liver toxicity as well as in hepatology as an antioxidant and antifibrotic protectant in cases of hepatitis and cirrhosis (Gillessen & Schmidt, 2020.)

Fig. 15: Woah, watch your fingers! A milk thistle. Image: Wikimedia Commons/fir0002. Milk thistle flowerhead. (GNU Free Documentation License 1.2)

Vincristine is another flower-based chemotherapy agent, used traditionally on the islands of the Phillippines and Madagascar as well as in the ancient practice of Indian Ayurveda for management of diabetes, tumors, hypertension, and several other symptom constellations (Mishra and Verma, 2017.) The compound comes from the Madagascar periwinkle flower, Catharanthus roseus, a pert 5-petaled flower dressed in violet blue, and is also called “sadabahar” in Ayurvedic medicine (Singh, 2025.) Western medical researchers began investigating vincristine in 1950 and in 1963, the drug was rubber stamped by the FDA for medicinal use (Awosika et al., 2023). Today, oncologists use vincristine to treat many varieties of leukemia, lymphoma, sarcomas, neuroblastomas, and other cancers (Awosika et al., 2023.) Vincristine’s success in cancer treatment has placed it on the WHO Essential Medicines List and ensured this periwinkle medicine’s continued benefit for the healing of humankind.

Fig. 16: the sadabahar, or pert little Madagascar periwinkle. Image: Wikimedia Commons/fir0002. Milk thistle flowerhead. (GNU Free Documentation License 1.2)

Multipurpose Medicines

Scopolamine and its active ingredient hyoscamine can be isolated from a multitude of plants in the Solanaceae (nightshade) family including mandrake, deadly nightshade, jimsonweed, and surprisingly, tomatoes (American Chemical Society, 2014.) A multitude of medicines from these plants have been used in indigenous communities in the Andes mountains since before the Inca empire emerged (Knapp, 2023,) and were first described in Western literature in 1881 (Keys, Thomas E., 1996.)

Scopolamine’s various applications include anesthesia-related nausea and vomiting, motion sickness, anticholinergic suppression of drooling, and antimuscarinic control of spasms common to gastrointestinal disorders and Parkinson’s disease. Notably, a precursor to scopolamine extracted from the corkwood tree and used by the Aboriginal communities in Australia was used – top secretly - during the Normandy invasion to prevent seasickness among Allied troops (Healy, 2019). Atropine comes from this family of plants as well, specifically, Atropa belladonna – an unassuming bush with the exception of its sinister, glistening blackish-purple berries.) Atropine has been used medicinally since at least the 4th century BC and was very popular as a cosmetic in the 14^th century. Its active alkaloid, hyoscyamine, was isolated in the early 19th century and remains an essential medication in ophthalmology, cardiology, and emergency care (Beçhet, 2014.)

Fig. 16: The menacing berries of the Atropa belladonna plant. Image:Wikimedia Commons/Krzysztof Ziarnek, Kenraiz. Atropa belladonna.(CC BY 4.0) 

In 1888, a German scientist named Albrecht Kossel discovered an active ingredient – theophylline, in the common tea leaf, Camellia sinensis (Wettengel, 1998.) Theophylline has since been discovered in the coffee plant (Theobroma cacao) as well as the Ilex paraguariensis, or yerba mate plant, which has been used medicinally by the Guarani and Tupi communities (residing in current-day Paraguay) since prior to European colonization of their land (Cervantes, unknown). 

The compound was first noticed to improve asthmatic symptoms in 1936, and today it is still prescribed for that use as well as for the management of COPD and diuretic purposes (Wettengel, 1998.) Interestingly, another traditional medicine used by both the Tupi and Guarani people (and subsequently appropriated by Spanish colonizers) is pilocarpine, which originates from the Pilocarpus microphyllis plant, originally called the jaborandi plant, native to Brazil (Chaachouay & Zidane, 2024.) Today, pilocarpine is a critical cholinergic agent used for glaucoma, dry eyes and xerostomia (Özyol, 2025) and shares a place on the World Health Organization’s list of Essential Medicines along with the artemisinin we explored earlier (World Health Organization, 2019).

Fig. 17: Would you like some tea? From Wix [photograph, "tea ceremony"] (educational use.)

In the next installment, we'll be wrapping up the Nature's Medicine Cabinet series by examining where botanical and plant-based medicines could go in the future. See you next month!

References (whole series)

Airainer, M., & Seifert, R. (2024). Lithium, the gold standard drug for bipolar disorder: Analysis of current clinical studies. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology, 397(12), 9723–9743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-024-03210-8

Al, B. (2014). The Source, Synthesis, History, and Use of Atropine. Journal of Academic Emergency Medicine, 13(1), 2–3. https://doi.org/10.5152/jaem.2014.1120141

American Chemical Society. (2014, October 21). Scopolamine. American Chemical Society. American Chemical Society: Molecule of the Week. https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/s/scopolamine.html

Anonymous. (2007, September 18). Dr. John Eng’s Research Found That The Saliva Of The Gila Monster Contains A Hormone That Treats Diabetes Better Than Any Other Medicine. [Medical Information]. Diabetes In Control. https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/dr-john-engs-research-found-that-the-saliva-of-the-gila-monster-contains-a-hormone-that-treats-diabetes-better-than-any-other-medicine/

Armbuster, Y. C., Banas, B. N., Feickert, K. D., England, S. E., Moyer, E. J., Christie, E. L., Chughtai, S., Giuliani, T. J., Halden, R. U., Graham, J. H., McCall, K. L., & Piper, B. J. (2021). Decline and Pronounced Regional Disparities in Medical Cocaine Usage in the United States. The Journal of Pharmacy Technology : JPT : Official Publication of the Association of Pharmacy Technicians, 37(6), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/87551225211035563

Arora, R., Chawla, R., Marwah, R., Arora, P., Sharma, R. K., Kaushik, V., Goel, R., Kaur, A., Silambarasan, M., Tripathi, R. P., & Bhardwaj, J. R. (2011). Potential of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Preventive Management of Novel H1N1 Flu (Swine Flu) Pandemic: Thwarting Potential Disasters in the Bud. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011(1), 586506. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/586506

Awosika, A. O., Below, J., & Das, J. M. (2025). Vincristine. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537122/

Babashpour-Asl, M., Kaboudi, P. S., & Barez, S. R. (2023). Therapeutic and medicinal effects of snowdrop (Galanthus spp.) in Alzheimer’s disease: A review. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 12(1), 128. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_451_22

Bailey, C. J. (2017). Metformin: Historical overview. Diabetologia, 60(9), 1566–1576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-017-4318-z

Bandyopadhyay, S. (2019). An 8,000-year History of Use and Abuse of Opium and Opioids: How That Matters For A Successful Control Of The Epidemic ? (P4.9-055). Neurology, 92(15_supplement), P4.9-055. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.92.15_supplement.P4.9-055

Ben Amar, M. (2006). Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 105(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001

Bradley, D. (2005). Star role for bacteria in controlling flu pandemic? Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1917

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Artemisinin: Etymologia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(7), 1217. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2007.ET2007

Cervantes, B. V. M. de. (unknown). En busca del hueso perdido: (Tratado de paraguayología) (translated from Spanish). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/en-busca-del-hueso-perdido-tratado-de-paraguayologia--0/html/ff4b16b6-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_17.html

Chaachouay, N., & Zidane, L. (2024). Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Source for Drug Discovery and Development. Drugs and Drug Candidates, 3(1), 184–207. https://doi.org/10.3390/ddc3010011

Chang, A., Rosani, A., & Quick, J. (2025). Capsaicin. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459168/

Check, W. A. (1989, October 30). Science / Medicine: Hot Pepper as Medicine : Modern Science Makes Use of an Ancient Pain Reliever. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-10-30-me-93-story.html

Cheshire, M. D., & Akbar, U. A. (2024). Akira Endo: Father of Statins. Cureus, 16(8), e68198. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.68198

Ebbert, J. O., Scharf, E. L., & Hurt, R. T. (2018). Medical Cannabis. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 93(12), 1842–1847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2018.09.005

Edwards, S. J., Hamilton, V., Nherera, L., & Trevor, N. (2013). Lithium or an atypical antipsychotic drug in the management of treatment resistant depression: A systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technology Assessment, 17(54), 1–190. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta17540

Edwards, Steven A. (2012, December 10). Digitalis: The flower, the drug, the poison. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). https://www.aaas.org/taxonomy/term/10/digitalis-flower-drug-poison

Elendu, C. (2024). The evolution of ancient healing practices: From shamanism to Hippocratic medicine: A review. Medicine, 103(28), e39005. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000039005

Fountoulakis, K. N. (2025). The Rise of a Legend: Lithium and the Extraordinary Story of Its Discovery. Pharmaceuticals, 18(8), 1230. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph18081230

Fürstenwerth, H. (2011). Letter by Fürstenwerth Regarding Article, “Aspirin: A Historical and Contemporary Therapeutic Overview.” Circulation, 124(12), e332–e332. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.038133

Gillessen, A., & Schmidt, H. H.-J. (2020). Silymarin as Supportive Treatment in Liver Diseases: A Narrative Review. Advances in Therapy, 37(4), 1279–1301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-020-01251-y

Graham, W., & Roberts, J. B. (1953). Intravenous Colchicine in the Management of Gouty Arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.12.1.16

Healy, Jacky. (2019, June 18). Visitors to Art of Healing exhibition told how Australian Indigenous bush medicine was given to every allied soldier landing at Normandy on D-Day. King’s College London. King’s College London. https://www.kcl.ac.uk/news/australian-indigenous-bush-medicine-was-given-to-allied-soldiers-on-d-day

Keys, Thomas E. (1996). The History of Surgical Anesthesia. Wood Library Museum of Anesthesiology. https://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/e-books/w0012pdf.PDF

Knapp, G. (2023). Escopolamina: The Complex History of Devil’s Breath (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429046186

Lee, M. R. (1999). The Snowdrop (Galanthus Nivalis): From Odysseus to Alzheimer. Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 29(4), 349–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/147827159902900417

Lesi, A. F., & Meremikwu, M. M. (2004). High first dose quinine regimen for treating severe malaria. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2004(3), CD003341. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003341.pub2

Long, H., Greller, H., Mercurio‐Zappala, M., Nelson, L. S., & Et., A. (2004). Medicinal Use of Cocaine: A Shifting Paradigm Over 25 Years. The Laryngoscope. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005537-200409000-00022

Manzoni, M., & Rollini, M. (2002). Biosynthesis and biotechnological production of statins by filamentous fungi and application of these cholesterol-lowering drugs. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 58(5), 555–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-002-0932-9

McGill University. (n.d.). 7 Up: Originally an Antidepressant. Office for Science and Society. Retrieved January 28, 2026, from https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/did-you-know-history/7-was-originally-antidepressant

McVean, Ada. (2017, June 17). 7 Up: Originally an Antidepressant. McGill University Office for Science and Society. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/did-you-know-history/7-was-originally-antidepressant

Mishra, J., & Verma, N. (2017). A brief study on Catharanthus Roseus: A review. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2.

Mondal, S., Patra, K., Sharma, D., Mishra, D., & Ghosal, S. (2025). From Fungi to Pharmacies: The Epic Discovery and Development of Statins—With Lovastatin at its Heart. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 6, 8069–8077. https://doi.org/10.55248/gengpi.06.1225.0113

Muranaka, T., Ohkawa, H., & Yamada, Y. (1993). Continuous production of scopolamine by a culture of Duboisia leichhardtii hairy root clone in a bioreactor system. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00170370

Nagaraju, M., & Kumar, M. (2020). Hot Pepper-History-Health and Dietary Benefits & Production. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 9 number 4(2020, 2532–2538. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.904.303

Özyol, P. (n.d.). Pharmacological Pinhole in Presbyopia Treatment: A Brief History from Pilocarpine to Aceclidine. Turkish Journal of Ophthalmology, 55(6), 350–351. https://doi.org/10.4274/tjo.galenos.2025.36524

Ruddock, E. H. (1867). The homœopathic vade mecum of modern medicine and surgery (2nd ed.). Jarrold and Sons. https://books.google.com/books?id=sxADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false

Sagandira, C. R., Mathe, F. M., Guyo, U., & Watts, P. (2020). The evolution of Tamiflu synthesis, 20 years on: Advent of enabling technologies the last piece of the puzzle? Tetrahedron, 76(37), 131440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2020.131440

Schönholzer, F., & Communications, U. Z. H. (2018, March 15). Dried Stars [Social and Cultural Anthropology]. University of Zürich. Universität Zürich - UZH News. https://www.news.uzh.ch/en/articles/2018/star-anise.html

Singh, D. R. (2023, January 27). Sadabahar (Periwinkle): Uses, Benefits, Side effects and More | PharmEasy. PharmEasy Blog. https://pharmeasy.in/blog/ayurveda-uses-benefits-side-effects-of-sadabahar/

Stolberg, V. B. (2011). The Use of Coca: Prehistory, History, and Ethnography. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2011.573310

United States Department of Veterans’ Affairs. (2019, May 7). Diabetes drug from Gila monster venom. United States Veterans’ Affairs Office of Research & Development. https://www.research.va.gov/research_in_action/Diabetes-drug-from-Gila-monster-venom.cfm

United States Food and Drug Administration. (2024, August 29). Information for Consumers on Using Dietary Supplements. United States Department of Health and Human Services. US Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/food/dietary-supplements/information-consumers-using-dietary-supplements

United States Food and Drug Administration, O. of I. (2024a, October 1). Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements. FDA. US FDA. https://www.fda.gov/food/information-consumers-using-dietary-supplements/questions-and-answers-dietary-supplements

United States Food and Drug Administration, O. of I. (2024b, October 1). Recalls, Market Withdrawals, & Safety Alerts. FDA. US FDA. https://www.fda.gov/safety/recalls-market-withdrawals-safety-alerts

Veeresham, C. (2012). Natural products derived from plants as a source of drugs. Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research, 3(4), 200. https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-4040.104709

Wall, W. J. (2015). The Search for Human Chromosomes: A History of Discovery. Springer.

Walters, Kevin. (2022, October 12). The Invention of Warfarin: A National Historic Chemical Landmark. American Chemical Society. https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/warfarin.html

Wettengel, R. (1998). [Theophylline—Past present and future]. Arzneimittel-Forschung, 48(5A), 535–539.

World Health Organization. (2015). Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. Third Edition. World Health Organization.

World Health Organization. (2019). World Health Organization: Model List of Essential Medicines, 21st List. World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/991ec35e-7462-4202-81ce-b7c9869afb2a/content

World Health Organization. (2025, December 4). Fact sheet about malaria. World Health Organization. World Health Organization - Fact Sheets. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria

Zuardi, A. W. (2006). History of cannabis as a medicine: A review. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 28, 153–157. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462006000200015

Assessed and Endorsed by the MedReport Medical Review Board